Aleksandra Uzelac, Institute for International Relations, Zagreb; sandra@irmo.hr
with
Garry Neil, INCD Coordinator
‘Technology
is neither good nor bad, nor is it neutral’
Melvin Kranzberg quoted by
Manuel Castells in The Rise of the Network Society, page 65
The information and communication technology (ICT) revolution started some decades ago but its development towards network logic that was brought about by the Internet gave it an extra push. The concept of an information society suggests universal and free access to information services (thus knowledge) for all citizens/users/consumers and possibility for an active participation in knowledge sharing. The prerequisite for this is adequate users’ knowledge as well as financial means to acquire necessary technical infrastructure for accessing information services available on the net - even then, services are not always free of charge.
New possibilities introduced by the application of ICT and digitalisation include easy and fast storage of information, reproduction, distribution and the use of different modes of information such as text, sound, picture, etc. All existing analogue media are converted into the digital form. Digital, virtual information has different characteristics than analogue. It can be easily copied and sent (without quality being lost in the copying process), it can be changed by software algorithms, as well as newly generated, i.e. it can be constructed from scratch on user request (databases, music synthesizer). For end users the emphasis is on communication and content and not on technology.
The potentials of the Internet are not limited by its organisation network logic, but its limits are set mostly by the existing infrastructure, as well as the financial limits and interests of commercial enterprises and, of course, ‘industrial society’ legislation.
Don Foresta distinguishes between ‘cyberspace’ that he describes as cosmopolitan and liberal myth and vision of a virtual universe and ‘information superhighway’ that he describes as an industrial project as well as a powerful instrument in the advanced marketing of audio-visual products and other pay services[1].
Public access policy measures try to compensate for the information gap between the information-haves and have-nots, trying to ensure universal access and a democratic information society. This is not an easy task for several reasons. The trend towards the convergence of different areas of technology affects the way that we work; because of this, all existing policies must take into account the new reality of the Internet and its global reach, as well as the new possibilities for communication and business, and possible threats that these pose. Existing cultural policies and strategies are changing slowly to adapt to the new context and are dealing with issues such as a changed environment for copyright, new services and new relationships with users, issues related to new ways of organisation of knowledge, complex dynamics information structures and issues of protection and efficient management of information, etc. Issues of fair use and privacy protection, bridging the existing information gap, education of users and similar issues are being dealt with on a more general governmental level as they are relevant to different sectors.
Nua Internet Surveys estimated how many users were on-line throughout the world in September 2002:
|
|
Number of
Internet users * |
General population ** |
|
605.60 million |
6,314 million |
|
|
6.31 million |
861 million |
|
|
187.24 million |
3,747 million |
|
|
190.91 million |
727 million |
|
|
5.12 million |
115 million |
|
|
182.67 million |
323 million |
|
|
33.35 million |
540 million |
* www.nua.com/surveys/how_many_online/index.html
** www.prb.org/pdf/WorldPopulationDS03_Eng.pdf
The figures show that the existing information gap between continents is not in fact closing, and that additionally, there is a division in every country on those who use and benefit from the Internet and those whose lack of adequate knowledge, infrastructure or financial means prevents them from fully using the net. Given the fast penetration of ICT in all areas of our life, it seems that those who are excluded from the virtual sphere are in fact excluded from our modern world.
The fast development in the virtual sphere requires constant evaluation of existing practices so that proper instruments and mechanisms can be introduced. There are governmental, private/commercial and citizens’ initiatives on the net which determine the direction and development of the information society and the Internet. Unfortunately, cultural institutions often lack the expertise and resources needed for the development of virtual projects. It is impossible for the cultural sector to ignore these developments as it is continually affected by it in many ways. Sustainability of services is not an issue that is easily addressed. Cultural institutions are now in a position to compete with new players (businesses, universities, private persons, etc.) that are offering information services over the net.
Diversity of information sources is an asset but also a problem as the aforementioned sources are not always easy to find. There is a need for improved search mechanisms as well as referral services that would bring users information classified by different criteria and avoid unreliable or false information. In addition, information is often scattered, making it ever more difficult for users to synthesize information from different sources. Due to existing information overload and spam, filtering and search mechanisms have become increasingly important and no effective solution has been found so far.
The financial imbalance between rich media and businesses and the much poorer cultural and NGO sector creates further inequities as in most cases NGOs cannot afford to buy the same tools for organising their information services and thus they offer simpler services. A partial remedy has been implemented by the CARNet Network in Croatia (founded by the Croatian Ministry of Science and Technology) which allows academic institutions in Croatia free access to the Internet infrastructure and software licences that would otherwise be beyond their financial possibilities. Thus this allows academic institutions a wide Internet presence and an ability to create information services that they could not otherwise afford developing. Similar public support exists in some other countries for the cultural sector as well.
Language barriers and dominance of English also creates an unequal position for resources in other languages that prevents the wide use of some existing resources. Translation of all existing on-line resources is organisationally and financially impossible.
Copyright issues are crucial to the artist, to the public and to the cultural field. Digitisation and the development of computer networks has changed the context of copyright as it is no longer necessary to have physical copies of most works. Users can simultaneously access the same resource and can make perfect copies of the document or other creations, such as music. They can store it on their own disk, send it to someone else, or modify or edit it in any manner they choose. It is also difficult to control access rights in many situation involving the Internet.
All of this has changed the copyright situation. Whereas physical documents (eg books, journals, newspapers) are sold, music has been sold primarily through stores, films have been viewed only at the cinema, on television or rented from the local video store, the informational goods and services provided through the Internet can be made available in any number of ways. They can be provided by their authors for free, they can be pirated and made available without authorisation, or they are available for rent. Further, it is difficult to determine copyright holders of the complex information structures on the Internet.
Most legal systems recognise that copyright is essential to promote innovation and creativity. It is difficult to make a living as an artist in most countries and protection of the intellectual creation is often seen as a key element in ensuring that an artist can be compensated adequately for their work.
On the other hand, where the author has provided it on the Internet and controls the site, he or she can remove it as easily if he or she sees fit. Thus, the user does not have the same access to the work as they would if it were available to them in the form of a book or periodical. This is significant because it introduces problems in the ‘public space’.
Some argue that copyright should provide a balance between creators/authors and the users of these materials. Copyright issues are crucial in determining whether users will have a right to freely access information in the 'public space' or if the information society will be available only to those that can afford it.
The preservation of the public space is very important, and changing the context for library services and other cultural heritage services such as museums and archives must be carefully examined in order to make sure that they can continue developing their services for all citizens (regardless of their financial situation).
There is also another unresolved issue of how to ensure that exploitation of the traditional knowledge of a community can be protected so that the local community can control it and benefit from its exploitation. Discussions on this issue are ongoing at WIPO and UNESCO.
In the global network environment cooperation is important in order to make integrated services and not many unrelated ones. Cooperation is present not just on implementing concrete practical virtual projects but also on the level of policy where many declarations and conventions are trying to ensure an international framework for the resolution of these issues and harmonisation of ICT related activities. The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS)[2] will try to carve a path towards an ‘Information Society for All’ - ensuring that all citizens can benefit from the ICT revolution. Faced with complex and evolving challenges, governments, the private sector and civil society should agree on a common objective that could bring new forms of solidarity, partnership and cooperation in achieving the democratic and participatory information society. Many international organisations such as UNESCO, WIPO, WTO, ITU, etc. are already participating in this process trying to monitor, promote and regulate its different aspects.
The Internet has the potential to be more than just a distribution channel for established cultural industries. Its two way communication provides new opportunities for involving users. In order to give stronger voice to small, independent players it is necessary to build some common mechanisms through which they can be more visible (virtual networks, portals). In order to make the Internet work for cultural sectors, clear objectives should be set by cultural institutions, networks and NGOs and a regulatory framework should be put in place by implementing cultural and other policies related to ICT. The future shape of the information society depends on achieving a balance between commercial and non-commercial initiatives. Within the cultural sector it is especially difficult. The significance of cultural heritage and diversity goes far beyond its commercial use and it is important to preserve it as well as communicate those cultural elements which are not necessarily commercially profitable.
When we look at cultural diversity, the key potential of the Internet is as a tool for providing far more than academic reports and newspapers. It already is a major means for the transmission of music (both legally and illegally) and the Hollywood majors are set to launch an on-demand Internet movie service. This is where we come to the core of the problem - the Internet could be a tool for diversity if:
On the other hand, the Internet will be a tool for homogenization if:
Some
challenges for cultural sector:
- adapting cultural policies to the new realities of ICT :
§ media regulation (ownership, concentration)
§ quota requirements
§ trade rules for electronically produced and distributed cultural goods and services
§ copyright in the digital environment
- bridging digital divide:
§ how to involve artists from developing countries
· infrastructural divide
· educational divide
· lack of information
- organizational adjustments of cultural sector to new technological development
o changing the way of working within the institutions
o recognising new possibilities and new potential users as well as new potential partners
o use of standards for better information management
o new structures such as networks and portals for more efficient communication and collaboration
[1] D. Foresta, A. Mergier, B. Serexhe, ‘The new space of communication, the interface with culture and artistic activities, page 4